CBSE: Chemistry Project to Study Effect of Metal Coupling on Corrosion

To study of the effect of metal coupling on the rate of corrosion

GYANESH   TIWARI
Roll No.6261924
XII (SCIENCE)
CONTENTS

1. I.        Acknowledgement
2. II.        Certificate
3. III.        Aim
4. IV.        Materials Required
5. V.        Theory
6. VI.        Procedure

VII.  Observations

1. VIII.    Conclusions
2. IX.    Precautions

Acknowledgement

It is my duty to record my  sincere thanks
and   deep  sense  of  gratitude  to    my respected    teacher  Mr. Sanjay Mishra     for    his    valued    guidance ,  interest  and  constant  encouragement  for  the fulfillment  of  the  project.
Gyanesh Tiwari
Class- XII  (science)
6261924
Certificate
Certified that this is the bonafide                                   work of Gyanesh Tiwari of class XII of K.V. A.F.S Rajokri N.D. 38 . He has performed these experiments during academic year 2009-10.
The student’s initiative, cooperativeness & participation during the practical   classes were excellent. His aesthetic presentation, visual appeal, expression & neatness were excellent.
His content accuracy, creativity, originality & analysis of different perception were excellent.
Mr. Sanjay Mishra
T.Signature:-
AIM
To study of the effect of metal coupling on the rate of corrosions.
Materials required:
Apparatus:
Beakers-15, Iron sheets of 2# size-6, Aluminium rods of 2# size-6, Brass rods of
2# size-6, Zinc sheets of 2# size-6, Measuring cylinders, Chemical Balance, Weight
Box.
Chemicals:
Hydrochloric acid and Sodium hydroxide.
Theory:
• Corrosion is a serious problem of some metals like iron, zinc, aluminium and alloys like brass which are commonly used in day to day life.
• Apart from reducing the life of articles made up of these metals or alloys the chemical substances formed out of corrosion have serious public health problems.
• Replacement of machines or their parts and many other articles in industrial and public dealing lead to huge expenditure.
• Hence, how to reduce or avoid corrosion of articles made up of metals or alloys has been a major subject of study in the field of chemistry and electro-chemistry.



Procedure:
(i) Mix 9 ml. of conc. HCl with 241 ml. of water to form 250 ml. of solution.
(ii) Take this solution in seven different beakers.
(iii) Mark each beaker serially from 1 to 7.
(iv) Take the weights of three iron sheets, three aluminium rods, three brass rods and
three zinc sheets.
(v) Now keep iron sheets, aluminium rods, zinc sheets and brass rod in separate
beakers.

(vi) Then take iron + brass, iron + aluminium, iron + zinc, aluminium + zinc and
brass + zinc and keep them in different beakers.
(vii) Allow the reactions to occur for 24 hours.
(viii) Note the maximum and minimum temperatures.
(ix) Now at the end of reaction take out the metals and keep them in sun for
sometime so that they get dried up quickly
(x) Take the weights of each specimen and note the difference.
(xi) Similarly repeat 1,2,3,4,5,6,7 and 8 steps in a basic solution.






Observations:

S.No.	Specimen (with acid)	Initial Weight (in gm)	Final Weight (in gm)
1.	Brass	8	5
2.	Iron	8	6
3.	Zinc	8	6.50
4.	Aluminium	8	7.10
5.	Iron + Aluminium	15	12.30
6.	Brass + Zinc	15	13.00
7.	Iron +Zinc	15	14.10
	Specimen (with Base)
8.	Brass	8	5.80
9.	Zinc	8	6.20
10.	Iron	8	7.10
11.	Aluminium	8	7.60
12.	Brass + Aluminium	15	12.90
13.	Brass + Zinc	15	13.60
14.	Iron + Aluminium	15	14.40

Results :
1. The rate of corrosion observed in acidic medium or the mass consumed during the
corrosion is in the decreasing order from brass to aluminum. Brass has the highest
corrosion rate while aluminium has the least corrosion rate.
Brass > Iron > Zinc > Aluminium
2. When coupling of these metals was done each couple showed some difference in their corrosion with respect to each metal kept alone. Iron + Aluminium couple has the highest rate of corrosion while iron +Zinc couple has the lowest rate of corrosion.
Rate of corrosion of each couple is in the order of
Iron + Aluminium > Brass + Zinc> Iron + Zinc
3. Rate of corrosion in basic medium is in the decreasing order from Brass to Aluminium.
The order of rate of corrosion is as below:
Brass > Zinc >Iron > Aluminium
4. When these metals were coupled the rate of corrosion was in the decreasing order from
Brass+ Aluminium > Brass + Zinc > Iron + Aluminium
5. Temperature and time of reaction were constant i.e., temperature was 21° C and time of
reaction was 24 hours.
Conclusions:
• Corrosion is a serious problem of some metals like iron, zinc, aluminium and alloys
like brass which are commonly used in day to day life.
• Apart from reducing the life of articles made up of these metals or alloys the
chemical substances formed out of corrosion have serious public health problems.
• Replacement of machines or their parts and many other articles in industrial and
public dealing lead to huge expenditure.
• Hence, how to reduce or avoid corrosion of articles made up of metals or alloys has
been a major subject of study in the field of chemistry and electro-chemistry.
• The study of the rate of corrosion of different metals or alloys showed gradual
decrease in their masses in acidic medium. The decrease is in the order of brass,
iron, zinc, aluminium.
• The present experiments are in full agreement with the well known electro-chemical reaction. Some of the typical reactions as occur with iron are illustrated.
(a) The reactions at respective electrodes are:
At cathode:
Fe . Fe2+ + 2e.
in acid the equilibrium is
HCl . H+ + Cl .
At anode:
The water which is in equilibrium
H2O . H+ + OH.
Here the Fe2+ cation will readily take Cl- and form FeCl3. While H+ of acid will
be reacting with another H+ of water and will form H2 gas. While OH. anion will also
react with some of the iron and will form Fe(OH)3 which is observed in the form of
rust.
(b) The e.m.f of these metals are in the order of Al:Zn:Fe . The values are
e.m.f
Al .Al3++3e-
Zn .Zn2++2e-
Fe . Fe 2++ 2e-
1.66V
0.76V
0.44V
Brass which is an alloy of zinc and copper has the e.m.f. 0.42V during the forward reaction or oxidation reaction. While in backward reaction the e.m.f. value is .0.42. This is because during oxidation reaction the e.m.f values of zinc and copper are .0.76 and + 0.34, respectively. That is why the value differs.
(c) In acid there are replaceable H+ ions which react with metals and H2 gas is
evolved. This is because all the metals are highly electronegative in nature. When
these two come in contact they react very easily and form stable compounds. Thus
the rate of corrosion is very high.
The rate of corrosion in basic medium is very less as compared to acidic medium. This is
shown because of following factors:
(i) Ex: sodium hydroxide .NaOH which is in equilibrium with Na+ and OH. ions.
NaOH . Na+ + OH  When
NaOH comes in contact with water the two ions immediately dissociate. The hydrates
Na+ ions will take the H+ ion.
The electropositive characters here will be the main factor in the slow rate of corrosion.
Na being more electropositive than the metal mentioned above, most of OH- ions will be
taken by Na+ when compared to the other metals i.e., the rate of corrosion is slow with
Na+ \ Fe2+ || OH\OH-
While H+ + electron = H
H + H = H2 gas.
(ii) The availability of e- is very less for the conversion of H+ to H2 gas state. That is why
there will not be replaceable ‘H’ ion. If there is no replaceable H+ ion then the corrosion will
be possible. Hence the rate of corrosion is very slow.
Bibliography:-



1) NCERT text book
2) WIKIPEDIA
3) APC Lab Manual

Email id: tgyanesh@gmail.com
Now in LPU, a 2010 Presentation.
Thank you.

Chemistry Project on Evaporation of Liquid

Evaporation

Acknowledgment
I am are greatly thankful for the cooperation and
help from the Community Science Center (CSC) authorities and the Chemistry lab staff for the successful completion of this investigatory project in the CSC Chemistry lab. Without their help and proper guidance my project might not have completed.



Index

1.  Introduction
2.  Theory
3.  Objectives of project
4. Experiment No.1

Theory

Evaporation is the process whereby atoms or molecules in a liquid state (or solid state if the substance sublimes) gain sufficient energy to enter the gaseous state.
The thermal motion of a molecule must be sufficient to overcome the surface tension of the liquid in order for it to evaporate, that is, its kinetic energy must exceed the work function of cohesion at the surface. Evaporation therefore proceeds more quickly at higher temperature and in liquids with lower surface tension. Since only a small proportion of the molecules are located near the surface and are moving in the proper direction to escape at any given instant, the rate of evaporation is limited. Also, as the faster-moving molecules escape, the remaining molecules have lower average kinetic energy, and the temperature of the liquid thus decreases.
If the evaporation takes place in a closed vessel, the escaping molecules accumulate as a vapor above the liquid. Many of the molecules return to the liquid, with returning molecules becoming more frequent as the density and pressure of the vapor increases. When the process of escape and return reaches equilibrium, the vapor is said to be “saturated,” and no further change in either vapor pressure and density or liquid temperature will occur.


Factors influencing rate of evaporation:-

1. 1. Concentration of the substance evaporating in the air. If the air already has a high concentration of the substance evaporating, then the given substance will evaporate more slowly.
2. 2. Concentration of other substances in the air. If the air is already saturated with other substances, it can have a lower capacity for the substance evaporating.
3. 3. Temperature of the substance. If the substance is hotter, then evaporation will be faster.
4. 4. Flow rate of air. This is in part related to the concentration points above. If fresh air is moving over the substance all the time, then the concentration of the substance in the air is less likely to go up with time, thus encouraging faster evaporation. In addition, molecules in motion have more energy than those at rest, and so the stronger the flow of air, the greater the evaporating power of the air molecules.
5. 5. Inter-molecular forces. The stronger the forces keeping the molecules together in the liquid or solid state the more energy that must be input in order to evaporate them.

1. 6. Surface area and temperature: -

Because molecules or atoms evaporate from a liquid’S surface, a larger surface area allows more molecules or atoms to leave the liquid, and evaporation occurs more quickly. For example, the same amount of water will evaporate faster if spilled on a table than if it is left in a cup.
Higher temperatures also increase the rate of evaporation. At higher temperatures, molecules or atoms have a higher average speed, and more particles are able to break free of the liquid’S surface. For example, a wet street will dry faster in the hot sun than in the shade.








Intermolecular forces: –

Most liquids are made up of molecules, and the levels of mutual attraction among different molecules help explain why some liquids evaporate faster than others. Attractions between molecules arise because molecules typically have regions that carry a slight negative charge, and other regions that carry a slight positive charge. These regions of electric charge are created because some atoms in the molecule are often more electronegative (electron-attracting) than others. The oxygen atom in a water (H2O) molecule is more electronegative than the hydrogen atoms, for example, enabling the oxygen atom to pull electrons away from both hydrogen atoms. As a result, the oxygen atom in the water molecule carries a partial negative charge, while the hydrogen atoms carry a partial positive charge. Water molecules share a mutual attraction—positively charged hydrogen atoms in one water molecule attract negatively charged oxygen atoms in nearby water molecules.

Intermolecular attractions affect the rate of evaporation of a liquid because strong intermolecular attractions hold the molecules in a liquid together more tightly. As a result, liquids with strong intermolecular attractions evaporate more slowly than liquids with weak intermolecular attractions. For example, because water molecules have stronger mutual attractions than gasoline molecules (the electric charges are more evenly distributed in gasoline molecules), gasoline evaporates more quickly than water.




Objective of project

In this project,we shall investigate various factors that have already been discussed such as nature of liquid ,surface of liquid and temperature and find their correlation with the rate of evaporation of different liquids.

Experiment no.1
Aim:
To compare the rate of evaporation of water, acetone and diethyl ether.
Materials required:
China dish, Pipette, Beaker, Weighing balance Measuring flask, Acetone, Distilled water, Diethyl ether, Watch

PROCEDURE:
1. Take three china dishes.
2. Pipette out 10 ml of each sample.
3. Dish A-Acetone
Dish B-Water
Dish C-Diethyl ether
4. Record the weights before beginning the experiment.
5. Leave the three dishes undisturbed for ½ an hr and                                                                                             wait patiently.
6. Record the weights of the samples after the given time.
7. Compare the prior and present observations.
OBSERVATION:

	Water (gm)	Acetone (gm)	Diethyl Ether (gm)
Weight of dish	50	50	50
Weight of (dish + substance) before evaporation	60	57.85	57
Weight of (dish + substance) after evaporation	59.8	55.55	54.33
Weight of substance evaporated	0.2	2.30	2.67

Inference and conclusion: -
The rate of evaporation of the given three liquids is in order :-
Diethyl Ether>Acetone>Water
Reason: -
Water has extensive hydrogen bonding in between oxygen atom of one molecule and hydrogen atom of another molecule. But this is absent in the case of acetone.
Experiment no.2
Aim:-To study the effect of surface area on the rate of evaporation of Diethyl ether.
Requirements
Three Petridishes of diameter 2.5 cm,5 cm, and 10 cm with covers ,10 ml pipette and stopwatch.
Procedure
1. Clean and dry the petridishes and mark them as A,B,C.
2. Pipette out 10 ml of Diethyl ether in each of the petridishes a,band C cover them immediately.
3. Uncover all the three petridishes simultaneously
and start the stopwatch.
4. Note the time when diethyl ether evaporates completely from each petridish.

Observation Table

Petridish Mark	Diameter of petridish	Time taken for complete evaporation
A	2.5 cm	11min 45sec
B	5.0 cm	8min 45sec
C	7.5 cm	6min 30sec

Result
It will be observed that maximum evaporation occurs in petridish with largest diameter followed  by smaller
and the smallest petridish. It is therefore , concluded that rate of evaporation increases with increase in surface area.

Chemistry Project on Antacids

Commercial Antacids

It is my foremost duty to express my deep regards & gratitude to my Chemistry teacher MRS. GAURI MASHRU under whose guidance & supervision I am able to undertake this project. It is her who has been my primary source of inspiration and who motivated, guided and encouraged me at different stages to make this project.
I am also thankful for the help rendered by the lab assistant who made available the various apparatus and chemicals  needed for the experiments, else it would have been a difficult task to perform this project successfully.
v ACKNOWLEDGEMENT                                (i)
v ANTACIDS                                                       1
v ACTION MECHANISM                                  1
v INDICATIONS                                                 1
v SIDE EFFECTS                                               1 – 2
v SOME MORE SIDE EFFECTS                     2 – 3
v HYPERACIDITY                                              3 – 4
v SOME FAMOUS ANTACID BRANDS        4 – 5
v DRUG NAMES                                                5
v SOME COMMONLY USED ANTACIDS     6

• ALUMINIUM HYDROXIDE                        6 -7
• MAGNESIUM HYDROXIDE                      8 – 9
• CALCIUM CARBONATE                          10 – 13
• SODIUM BICARBONATE                        14 – 16
• BISMUTH SUBSALICYLATE                   17 –18

v INVESTIGATORY EXPERIMENT                19 – 21
v BIBLOGRAPHY                                               (ii)








ANTACIDS
An Antacid is any substance, generally a base or basic salt, which neutralizes stomach acidity. They are used to relieve acid indigestion, upset stomach, sour stomach, and heartburn.
ACTION MECHANISM
Antacids perform a neutralization reaction, i.e. they buffer gastric acid, raising the pH to reduce acidity in the stomach. When gastric hydrochloric acid reaches the nerves in the gastrointestinal mucosa, they signal pain to the central nervous system. This happens when these nerves are exposed, as in peptic ulcers. The gastric acid may also reach ulcers in the esophagus or the duodenum.
Other mechanisms may contribute, such as the effect of aluminium ions inhibiting smooth muscle cell contraction and delaying gastric emptying.
INDICATIONS
Antacids are taken by mouth to relieve heartburn, the major symptom of gastro esophageal reflux disease, or acid indigestion. Treatment with antacids alone is symptomatic and only justified for minor symptoms. Peptic ulcers may require H2-receptor antagonists or proton pump inhibitors.
The utility of many combinations of antacids is not clear, although the combination of magnesium and aluminium salts may prevent alteration of bowel habits.
SIDE EFFECTS
Excess calcium from supplements, fortified food and high-calcium diets, can cause the milk-alkali syndrome, which has serious toxicity and can be fatal. In 1915, Bertram Sippy introduced the “Sippy regimen” of hourly ingestion of milk and cream, the gradual addition of eggs and cooked cereal, for 10 days, combined with alkaline powders, which provided symptomatic relief for peptic ulcer disease. Over the next several decades, the Sippy regimen resulted in renal failure, alkalosis, and hypercalemia, mostly in men with peptic ulcer disease. These adverse effects were reversed when the regimen stopped, but it was fatal in some patients with protracted vomiting. Milk alkali syndrome declined in men after effective treatments were developed for peptic ulcer disease. But during the past 15 years, it has been reported in women taking calcium supplements above the recommended range of 1200 to 1500 mg daily, for prevention and treatment of osteoporosis, and is exacerbated by dehydration. Calcium has been added to over-the-counter products, which contributes to inadvertent excessive intake.
The New England Journal of Medicine reported a typical case of a woman who arrived in the emergency department vomiting and altered mental status, writhing in pain. She had consumed large quantities of chewable antacid tablets containing calcium carbonate (Tums). She gradually recovered.^[1]
Compounds containing calcium may also increase calcium output in the urine, which might be associated with kidney stones.^[2] Calcium salts may cause constipation.
Other adverse effects from antacids include:

1. 1. Carbonate : Regular high doses may cause alkalosis, which in turn may result in altered excretion of other drugs, and kidney stones. A chemical reaction between the carbonate and hydrochloric acid may produce carbon dioxide gas. This causes gastric distension which may not be well tolerated. Carbon dioxide formation can also lead to headaches and decreased muscle flexibility.
2. 2. Aluminum hydroxide : May lead to the formation of insoluble aluminium-phosphate-complexes, with a risk for hypophosphatemia and osteomalacia. Although aluminium has a low gastrointestinal absorption, accumulation may occur in the presence of renal insufficiency. Aluminium-containing drugs may cause constipation.
3. 3. Magnesium hydroxide : Has laxative properties. Magnesium may accumulate in patients with renal failure leading to hypermagnesemia, with cardiovascular and neurological complications. See Milk of magnesia.
4. 4. Sodium : Increased intake of sodium may be deleterious for arterial hypertension, heart failure and many renal diseases.

SOME MORE SIDE EFFECTS
Fortunately, because acid reflux is such a common problem, antacids are among the medicines available and free of side effects for most people. Side effects from antacids vary depending on individual and other medications they may be taking at the time. Those who experience side effects most commonly suffer from changes in bowel functions, such as diarrhea, constipation, or flatulence.
Although reactions to any drug may vary from person to person, generally those medications that contain aluminum or calcium are the likeliest to cause constipation, those that contain magnesium are the likeliest to cause diarrhea. Some products combine these ingredients, which essentially cancels them out, to forestall unpleasant side effects.
In general, people with kidney problems should probably not take antacids as this can sometimes cause a condition known as alkalosis. In other people, side effects may occur if substances such as salt, sugar, or aspirin, are added to a particular medication. As with all medications, always carefully read the product label on the package and check with your doctor or pharmacist if you have any question about potential drug interactions or side effects.
Some side effects, such as constipation and diarrhea, are fairly obvious. Other more serious side effects, such as stomach or intestinal; bleeding, can be more difficult to recognize. In general, any sign of blood in the stool or the presence of vomiting is a danger sign and should be brought to the immediate attention of a physician.
If your symptoms persist for more than 10 days to two weeks while you are using the medication, you should stop taking it and consult your doctor. Persistent symptoms may indicate that you have more a serious problem than occasional acid reflux. Pregnant or nursing baby should always consult your doctor before taking this medication. Generally, you should not give these medications to children under the age of 12 unless under the advice and supervision of your doctor or the package label has indicated that the product is safe for young children. Constant use of antacids leads to a condition called acid rebound where the stomach begins to over secrete acid in order to make up for the quantity that is being neutralized.
HYPERACIDITY, CAUSE FOR INTAKE OF ANTACIDS
Hyperacidity or acid dyspepsia simply means increase of acidity in the stomach. The human stomach secretes hydrochloric acid which is necessary for the digestion of food. When the stomach contains an excessive amount of hydrochloric acid, then the condition is called as hyperacidity or acid dyspepsia.
Sometimes, hyperacidity is confused for a simple bellyache. This is because people with hyperacidity usually generally get pains in their stomachs with similar symptoms as bellyaches. This confusion is more rampant in children who cannot differentiate between different kinds of stomach ailments. However, hyperacidity can be found out with the sour belching and aftertaste of the already eaten food in the mouth.
The prime medical factors of hyperacidity or acid dyspepsia are as follows : (i) Stomach Ulcers: Ulcers in the stomach are one of the prime causes of
hyperacidity. Once this is diagnosed, the treatment will be done by the surgical removal of the stomach ulcers.
(ii) Acid Reflux Disease: Some people have a gastric disorder called as the acid reflux disease. In this condition, the acids of the stomach, i.e. gastric acids or hydrochloric acid, get refluxed up to the food pipe, which is biologically called as the esophagus. When this happens, it builds up the level of acidity in the stomach.
(iii) Stomach Cancers: Stomach cancers can also cause hyperacidity as one of their symptoms. This is a very rare case, but the mortality rate is quite high. Hence, a hyperacidity that lasts more than two weeks must be immediately shown to the doctor and got checked for any cancer. A timely diagnosis can enable complete treatment of the disease.
SYMPTOMS OF HYPERACIDITY
Hyperacidity symptoms are observed a couple of hours after eating, when the food has been digested and still excess acids are left within the stomach. At this stage, the following symptoms are seen:-

1. 1. A typical feeling of restlessness
2. 2. Feeling of nausea (wanting to throw up) and actual vomiting
3. 3. Sour belching with an aftertaste of the already-eaten food
4. 4. Stiffness in the stomach, which is called as atonic dyspepsia
5. 5. Lack of desire for any other type of food
6. 6. Indigestion
7. 7. Constipation

INTERACTIONS
Altered pH or complex formation may alter the bioavailability of other drugs, such as tetracycline. Urinary excretion of certain drugs may also be affected.
PROBLEMS WITH REDUCED STOMACH ACIDITY
Reduced stomach acidity may result in an impaired ability to digest and absorb certain nutrients, such as iron and the B vitamins. Since the low pH of the stomach normally kills ingested bacteria, antacids increase the vulnerability to infection. It could also result in reduced bioavailability of some drugs. For example, the bioavailability of ketoconazole (antifungal) is reduced at high intragastric pH (low acid content).
SOME FAMOUS ANTACID BRANDS

1. 1. Alka-Seltzer – NaHCO₃ and/or KHCO₃
2. 2. Equate – Al(OH)₃ and Mg(OH)₂
3. 3. Gaviscon – Al(OH)₃
4. 4. Maalox (liquid) – Al(OH)₃ and Mg(OH)₂
5. 5. Maalox (tablet) – CaCO₃
6. 6. Milk of Magnesia – Mg(OH)₂
7. 7. Pepto-Bismol – HOC6H4COO
8. 8. Pepto-Bismol Children’s – CaCO₃
9. 9. Rolaids – CaCO₃ and Mg(OH)₂

10. Tums – CaCO₃
11. Mylanta
DRUG NAMES
Some drugs used as antacids are :

1. 1. Aluminium hydroxide
2. 2. Magnesium hydroxide
3. 3. Calcium carbonate
4. 4. Sodium bicarbonate
5. 5. Bismuth subsalicylate
6. 6. Histamine
7. 7. Cimetidine
8. 8. Ranitidine
9. 9. Omeprazole

10. Lansoprazole
SOME IMPORTANT COMMONLY USED ANTACIDS
1.ALUMINIUM HYDROXIDE

Aluminium hydroxide, Al(OH)₃, Alum, is the most stable form of aluminium in normal conditions. It is found in nature as the mineral gibbsite (also known as hydrargillite) and its three, much more rare, polymorphs: bayerite, doyleite and nordstrandite. Closely related are aluminium oxide hydroxide, AlO(OH), and aluminium oxide, Al₂O₃, differing only by loss of water. These compounds together are the major components of the aluminium ore bauxite. Freshly precipitated aluminium hydroxide forms gels, which is the basis for application of aluminium salts as flocculants in water purification. This gel crystallizes with time. Aluminium hydroxide gels can be dehydrated (e.g., with the utility of water-miscible non-aqueous solvents like ethanol) to form an amorphous aluminium hydroxide powder, which is readily soluble in acids. Heat-dried aluminium hydroxide powder is known as activated alumina and is used in gas purification, as a catalyst support and an abrasive.
PRODUCTION
Bauxites are heated in pressure vessels with sodium hydroxide solution at 150–200 °C through which aluminium is dissolved as aluminate (Bayer process). After separation of ferruginous residue (red mud) by filtering, pure gibbsite is precipitated when the liquid is cooled and seeded with fine grained aluminium hydroxide. The aluminium hydroxide is further calcined to give alumina, which may be smelted in the Hall-Héroult process in order to produce aluminium.
CHEMISTRY
Gibbsite has a typical metal hydroxide structure with hydrogen bonds. It is built up of double layers of hydroxyl groups with aluminium ions occupying two-thirds of the octahedral holes between the two layers.
Aluminium hydroxide is amphoteric. It dissolves in acid, forming Al(H₂O)₆³⁺ (hexaaquaaluminate) or its hydrolysis products. It also dissolves in strong alkali, forming Al(OH)₄^- (tetrahydroxoaluminate).
PHARMACOLOGY
Pharmacologically, this compound is used as an antacid under names such as Alu-Cap, Aludrox or Pepsamar. The hydroxide reacts with excess acid in the stomach, reducing its acidity. This decrease of acidity of the contents of the stomach may in turn help to relieve the symptoms of ulcers, heartburn or dyspepsia. It can also cause constipation and is therefore often used with magnesium hydroxide or magnesium carbonate, which have counterbalancing laxative effects. This compound is also used to control phosphate (phosphorus) levels in the blood of people suffering from kidney failure.
Aluminium hydroxide, alum, is included as an adjuvant in some vaccines (e.g., Alhydrogel, Anthrax Vaccine), since it appears to contribute to induction of a good antibody (Th2) response. Its pharmacological action is not known. However, it has little capacity to stimulate cellular (Th1) immune responses, important for protection against many pathogens.
Because the brain lesions found in Alzheimer’s disease sometimes contain traces of aluminium, there is concern that consumption of excess aluminium compounds may cause or contribute to the development of this and other neurodegenerative diseases. However, multiple epidemiological studies have found no connection between exposure to aluminium and neurological disorders.
In addition, elevated aluminium levels in blood, resulting from kidney dialysis with well water containing high aluminium, may result in dementia that is similar to but probably different from that of Alzheimer’s disease. However, this hypothesis is controversial.
In 2007, tests with mice of the anthrax vaccine using aluminium hydroxide adjuvant were reported as resulting in adverse neuropathy symptoms.
USE AS A FIRE RETARDANT
Aluminium hydroxide also finds use as a fire retardant filler for polymer applications in a similar way to magnesium hydroxide and hydromagnesite. It decomposes at about 180 °C giving off water vapour.
2.MAGNESIUM HYDROXIDE

Magnesium hydroxide is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula Mg(OH)₂. As a suspension in water, it is often called milk of magnesia because of its milk-like appearance. The solid mineral form of magnesium hydroxide is known as brucite.
Magnesium hydroxide is common component of antacids and laxatives; it interferes with the absorption of folic acid and iron.  Magnesium hydroxide has low solubility in water, with a K_sp of 1.5×10⁻¹¹; all of magnesium hydroxide that does dissolve does dissociate. Since the dissociation of this small amount of dissolved magnesium hydroxide is complete, magnesium hydroxide is considered a strong base.
HISTORY
In 1829, Sir James Murray used a fluid magnesia preparation of his own design to treat the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, the Marquis of Anglesey. This was so successful (advertised in Australia and approved by the Royal College of Surgeons in 1838) that he was appointed resident physician to Anglesey and two subsequent Lords Lieutenants, and knighted. His fluid magnesia product was patented two years after his death in 1873.
The term milk of magnesia was first used for a white-colored, aqueous, mildly alkaline suspension of magnesium hydroxide formulated at about 8%w/v by Charles Henry Phillips in 1880 and sold under the brand name Phillips’ Milk of Magnesia for medicinal usage.
Although the name may at some point have been owned by GlaxoSmithKline, USPTO registrations show “Milk of Magnesia” to be registered to Bayer, and “Phillips’ Milk of Magnesia” to Sterling Drug. In the UK, the non-brand (generic) name of “Milk of Magnesia” and “Phillips’ Milk of Magnesia” is “Cream of Magnesia” (Magnesium Hydroxide Mixture, BP).
PREPARATION
Magnesium hydroxide can be precipitated by the metathesis reaction between magnesium salts and sodium, potassium, or ammonium hydroxide:
Mg²⁺ (aq.) + 2 OH⁻ (aq.) → Mg(OH)₂ (s)
USES
Suspensions of magnesium hydroxide in water (milk of magnesia) are used as an antacid to neutralize stomach acid, and a laxative. The diarrhea caused by magnesium hydroxide carries away much of the body’s supply of potassium, and failure to take extra potassium may lead to muscle cramps. Magnesium hydroxide is also used as an antiperspirant armpit deodorant. Milk of magnesia is useful against canker sores (aphthous ulcer) when used topically.
Milk of magnesia is sold for medical use as chewable tablets, capsules, and as liquids having various added flavors. It is used as an antacid, though more modern formulations combine the antimotility effects of equal concentrations of aluminum hydroxide to avoid unwanted laxative effects.
Magnesium hydroxide powder is used industrially as a non-hazardous alkali to neutralise acidic wastewaters. It also takes part in the Biorock method of building artificial reefs.
Solid magnesium hydroxide has also smoke suppressing and fire retarding properties. This is due to the endothermic decomposition it undergoes at 332 °C (630 °F) :
Mg(OH)₂ → MgO + H₂O
BIOLOGICAL METABOLISM
When the patient drinks the milk of magnesia, the suspension enters the stomach. Depending on how much was taken, one of two possible outcomes will occur.
As an antacid, milk of magnesia is dosed at approximately 0.5–1.5g in adults and works by simple neutralization, where the hydroxide ions from the Mg(OH)₂ combine with acidic H⁺ ions produced in the form of hydrochloric acid by parietal cells in the stomach to produce water.
Only a small amount of the magnesium from milk of magnesia is usually absorbed from a person’s intestine (unless the person is deficient in magnesium). However, magnesium is mainly excreted by the kidneys so longterm, daily consumption of milk of magnesia by someone suffering from renal failure could lead in theory to hypermagnesemia.
3.CALCIUM CARBONATE

Calcium carbonate is a chemical compound with the chemical formula CaCO₃. It is a common substance found in rock in all parts of the world, and is the main component of shells of marine organisms, snails, pearls, and eggshells. Calcium carbonate is the active ingredient in agricultural lime, and is usually the principal cause of hard water. It is commonly used medicinally as a calcium supplement or as an antacid, but excessive consumption can be hazardous.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Calcium carbonate shares the typical properties of other carbonates. Notably:

• it reacts with strong acids, releasing carbon dioxide:

CaCO_3(s) + 2 HCl_(aq) → CaCl_2(aq) + CO_2(g) + H₂O_(l)

• it releases carbon dioxide on heating (to above 840 °C in the case of CaCO₃), to form calcium oxide, commonly called quicklime, with reaction enthalpy 178 kJ / mole:

CaCO₃ → CaO + CO₂
Calcium carbonate will react with water that is saturated with carbon dioxide to form the soluble calcium bicarbonate.
CaCO₃ + CO₂ + H₂O → Ca(HCO₃)₂
This reaction is important in the erosion of carbonate rocks, forming caverns, and leads to hard water in many regions.


PREPARATION
The vast majority of calcium carbonate used in industry is extracted by mining or quarrying. Pure calcium carbonate (e.g. for food or pharmaceutical use), can be produced from a pure quarried source (usually marble).
Alternatively, calcium oxide is prepared by calcining crude calcium carbonate. Water is added to give calcium hydroxide, and carbon dioxide is passed through this solution to precipitate the desired calcium carbonate, referred to in the industry as precipitated calcium carbonate (PCC):
CaCO₃ → CaO + CO₂
CaO + H₂O → Ca(OH)₂
Ca(OH)₂ + CO₂ → CaCO₃ + H₂O
GEOLOGY
Carbonate is found frequently in geologic settings. It is found as a polymorph. A polymorph is a mineral with the same chemical formula but different chemical structure. Aragonite, calcite, limestone, chalk, marble, travertine, tufa, and others all have CaCO₃ as their formula but each has a slightly different chemical structure. Calcite, as calcium carbonate is commonly referred to in geology is commonly talked about in marine settings. Calcite is typically found around the warm tropic environments. This is due to its chemistry and properties. Calcite is able to precipitate in warmer shallow environments than it does under colder environments because warmer environments do not favour the dissolution of CO₂. This is analogous to CO₂ being dissolved in soda. When you take the cap off of a soda bottle, the CO₂ rushes out. As the soda warms up, carbon dioxide is released. This same principle can be applied to calcite in the ocean. Cold water carbonates do exist at higher latitudes but have a very slow growth rate.
In tropic settings, the waters are warm and clear. Consequently, you will see many more coral in this environment than you would towards the poles where the waters are cold. Calcium carbonate contributors such as corals, algae, and microorganisms are typically found in shallow water environments because as filter feeders they require sunlight to produce calcium carbonate.
USES
Industrial applications
The main use of calcium carbonate is in the construction industry, either as a building material in its own right (e.g. marble) or limestone aggregate for roadbuilding or as an ingredient of cement or as the starting material for the preparation of builder’s lime by burning in a kiln.
Calcium carbonate is also used in the purification of iron from iron ore in a blast furnace. Calcium carbonate is calcined in situ to give calcium oxide, which forms a slag with various impurities present, and separates from the purified iron.
Calcium carbonate is widely used as an extender in paints, in particular matte emulsion paint where typically 30% by weight of the paint is either chalk or marble.
Calcium carbonate is also widely used as a filler in plastics. Some typical examples include around 15 to 20% loading of chalk in unplasticized polyvinyl chloride (uPVC) drain pipe, 5 to 15% loading of stearate coated chalk or marble in uPVC window profile. PVC cables can use calcium carbonate at loadings of up to 70 phr (parts per hundred parts of resin) to improve mechanical properties (tensile strength and elongation) and electrical properties (volume resistivity). Polypropylene compounds are often filled with calcium carbonate to increase rigidity, a requirement that becomes important at high use temperatures. It also routinely used as a filler in thermosetting resins (Sheet and Bulk moulding compounds) and has also been mixed with ABS, and other ingredients, to form some types of compression molded “clay” Poker chips.
Fine ground calcium carbonate is an essential ingredient in the microporous film used in babies’ diapers and some building films as the pores are nucleated around the calcium carbonate particles during the manufacture of the film by biaxial stretching.
Calcium carbonate is known as whiting in ceramics/glazing applications, where it is used as a common ingredient for many glazes in its white powdered form. When a glaze containing this material is fired in a kiln, the whiting acts as a flux material in the glaze.
It is used in swimming pools as a pH corrector for maintaining alkalinity “buffer” to offset the acidic properties of the disinfectant agent.
It is commonly called chalk as it has traditionally been a major component of blackboard chalk. Modern manufactured chalk is now mostly gypsum, hydrated calcium sulfate CaSO₄·2H₂O.

HEALTH AND DIETARY APPLICATIONS
Calcium carbonate is widely used medicinally as an inexpensive dietary calcium supplement or antacid. It may be used as a phosphate binder for the treatment of hyperphosphatemia (primarily in patients with chronic renal failure). It is also used in the pharmaceutical industry as an inert filler for tablets and other pharmaceuticals.
Calcium carbonate is used in the production of toothpaste and is also used in homeopathy as one of the constitutional remedies. Also, it has seen a resurgence as a food preservative and color retainer, when used in or with products such as organic apples or food.
Excess calcium from supplements, fortified food and high-calcium diets, can cause the “milk alkali syndrome,” which has serious toxicity and can be fatal. In 1915, Bertram Sippy introduced the “Sippy regimen” of hourly ingestion of milk and cream, and the gradual addition of eggs and cooked cereal, for 10 days, combined with alkaline powders, which provided symptomatic relief for peptic ulcer disease. Over the next several decades, the Sippy regimen resulted in renal failure, alkalosis, and hypercalemia, mostly in men with peptic ulcer disease. These adverse effects were reversed when the regimen stopped, but it was fatal in some patients with protracted vomiting. Milk alkali syndrome declined in men after effective treatments for peptic ulcer disease.
A form of food additive is designated as E170.  It is used in some soy milk products as a source of dietary calcium; one study suggests that calcium carbonate might be as bioavailable as the calcium in cow’s milk.









4.SODIUM BICARBONATE

Sodium bicarbonate or sodium hydrogen carbonate is the chemical compound with the formula NaHCO₃. Sodium bicarbonate is a white solid that is crystalline but often appears as a fine powder. It can be used to experiment and is not very dangerous. It has a slight alkaline taste resembling that of washing soda (sodium carbonate). It is a component of the mineral natron and is found dissolved in many mineral springs. The natural mineral form is known as nahcolite. It is found in its dissolved form in bile, where it serves to neutralize the acidity of the hydrochloric acid produced by the stomach, and is excreted into the duodenum of the small intestine via the bile duct. It is also produced artificially.
Since it has long been known and is widely used, the salt has many related names such as baking soda, bread soda, cooking soda, bicarbonate of soda. Colloquially, its name is shortened to sodium bicarb, bicarb soda, or simply bicarb. The word saleratus, from Latin sal æratus meaning “aerated salt”, was widely used in the 19th century for both sodium bicarbonate and potassium bicarbonate. The term has now fallen out of common usage.
HISTORY
The ancient Egyptians used natural deposits of natron, a mixture consisting mostly of sodium carbonate decahydrate and sodium bicarbonate. The natron was used as a cleansing agent like soap.
In 1791, a French chemist, Nicolas Leblanc, produced sodium bicarbonate as we know it today. In 1846 two New York bakers, John Dwight and Austin Church, established the first factory to develop baking soda from sodium carbonate and carbon dioxide.


PRODUCTION
NaHCO₃ is mainly prepared by the Solvay process, which is the reaction of calcium carbonate, sodium chloride, ammonia, and carbon dioxide in water. It is produced on the scale of about 100,000 ton/year (as of 2001).^[2]
NaHCO₃ may be obtained by the reaction of carbon dioxide with an aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide. The initial reaction produces sodium carbonate:
CO₂ + 2 NaOH → Na₂CO₃ + H₂O
Further addition of carbon dioxide produces sodium bicarbonate, which at sufficiently high concentration will precipitate out of solution:
Na₂CO₃ + CO₂ + H₂O → 2 NaHCO₃
Commercial quantities of baking soda are also produced by a similar method: soda ash, mined in the form of the ore trona, is dissolved in water and treated with carbon dioxide. Sodium bicarbonate precipitates as a solid from this method:
Na₂CO₃ + CO₂ + H₂O → 2 NaHCO₃
CHEMISTRY
Sodium bicarbonate is an amphoteric compound. Aqueous solutions are mildly alkaline due to the formation of carbonic acid and hydroxide ion:
HCO−3 + H₂O → H₂CO₃ + OH⁻
Sodium bicarbonate can be used as a wash to remove any acidic impurities from a “crude” liquid, producing a purer sample. Reaction of sodium bicarbonate and an acid to give a salt and carbonic acid, which readily decomposes to carbon dioxide and water:
NaHCO₃ + HCl → NaCl + H₂CO₃
H₂CO₃ → H₂O + CO₂ (g)
Sodium bicarbonate reacts with acetic acid (CH₃COOH) to form sodium acetate:
NaHCO₃ + CH₃COOH → CH₃COONa + H₂O + CO₂ (g)
Sodium bicarbonate reacts with bases such as sodium hydroxide to form carbonates:
NaHCO₃ + NaOH → Na₂CO₃ + H₂O
Sodium bicarbonate reacts with carboxyl groups in proteins to give a brisk effervescence from the formation of CO₂. This reaction is used to test for the presence of carboxylic groups in protein.
APPLICATIONS
Sodium bicarbonate is primarily used in cooking (baking) where it reacts with other components to release carbon dioxide, that helps dough “rise”. The acidic compounds that induce this reaction include phosphates, cream of tartar, lemon juice, yogurt, buttermilk, cocoa, vinegar, etc. Sodium bicarbonate can be substituted for baking powder provided sufficient acid reagent is also added to the recipe.^[3] Many forms of baking powder contain sodium bicarbonate combined with one or more acidic phosphates (especially good) or cream of tartar. It can also be used for softening peas (⅛ tsp. per pint of water and bring to boil for one hour)
Many laboratories keep a bottle of sodium bicarbonate powder within easy reach, because sodium bicarbonate is amphoteric, reacting with acids and bases. Furthermore, as it is relatively innocuous in most situations, there is no harm in using excess sodium bicarbonate. Lastly, sodium bicarbonate powder may be used to smother a small fire.
Sodium bicarbonate is used in an aqueous solution as an antacid taken orally to treat acid indigestion and heartburn. It may also be used in an oral form to treat chronic forms of metabolic acidosis such as chronic renal failure and renal tubular acidosis. Sodium bicarbonate may also be useful in urinary alkalinization for the treatment of aspirin overdose and uric acid renal stones.
Sodium bicarbonate can be used to extinguish small grease or electrical fires by being poured or dumped over the fire. However, it should not be poured or dumped onto fires in deep fryers as it may cause the grease to splatter. Sodium bicarbonate is used in BC dry chemical fire extinguishers as an alternative to the more corrosive ammonium phosphate in ABC extinguishers. The alkali nature of sodium bicarbonate makes it the only dry chemical agent, besides Purple-K, that was used in large scale fire suppression systems installed in commercial kitchens. Because it can act as an alkali, the agent has a mild saponification effect on hot grease, which forms a smothering soapy foam. Dry chemicals have since fallen out of favor for kitchen fires as they have no cooling effect compared to the extremely effective wet chemical agents specifically designed for such hazards.
5.BISMUTH SUBSALICYLATE

Bismuth subsalicylate, with a chemical formula C₇H₅BiO₄, is a drug used to treat nausea, heartburn, indigestion, upset stomach, diarrhea, and other temporary discomforts of the stomach and gastrointestinal tract. Commonly known as pink bismuth, it is the active ingredient in popular medications such as Pepto-Bismol and modern (since 2003) Kaopectate.
PHARMACOLOGY
As a derivative of salicylic acid, bismuth salicylate displays anti-inflammatory action and also acts as an antacid.
ADVERSE EFFECTS AND CONTRAINDICATIONS
There are some adverse effects. It can cause a black tongue and black stools in some users of the drug, when it combines with trace amounts of sulfur in saliva and the gastrointestinal tract. This discoloration is temporary and harmless.
Some of the risks of salicylism can apply to the use of bismuth subsalicylate.
Children should not take medication with bismuth subsalicylate while recovering from influenza or chicken pox, as epidemiologic evidence points to an association between the use of salicylate-containing medications during certain viral infections and the onset of Reye’s syndrome. For the same reason, it is typically recommended that nursing mothers not use medication containing bismuth subsalicylate (such as Pepto-Bismol) because small amounts of the medication are excreted in breast milk and pose a theoretical risk of Reye’s syndrome to nursing children.


RADIOACTIVITY
While bismuth is technically radioactive, its half life is so long, on the order of hundreds of billions of years, that its radioactivity presents absolutely no threat under all medical and other ordinary purposes.
DECOMPOSITION
Bismuth subsalicyclate is the only active ingredient in an over the counter medication that will actually leave a shiny metal slag behind.
INVESTIGATORY EXPERIMENT
OBJECTIVE :
To analyse the given samples of commercial antacids by determining the amount of hydrochloric acid they can neutralize.
REQUIREMENTS :
Burettes, pipettes, titration flasks, measuring flasks, beakers, weight box, fractional weights, sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate, hydrochloric acid, phenolphthalein.
PROCEDURE :
1. Prepare 1 litre of approximately  HCl solution by diluting 10 ml of the concentrated acid for one litre.
2. Similarly, make 1 litre of approximately NaOH solution by dissolving4.0g of NaOH to prepare one litre of solution.
3. Prepare  Na₂CO₃ solution by weighing exactly 1.325 g of anhydrous sodium carbonate and then dissolving it in water to prepare exactly 0.25 litres (250 ml) of solution.
4. Standardize the HCl solution by titrating it against the standard Na₂CO₃ solution using methyl orange as indicator.
5. Similarly, standardize NaOH solution by titrating it against standardized HCl solution using phenolphthalein as indicator.
6. Powder the various samples of antacid tablets and weigh 1.0 g of each.
7. Add a specific volume of standardised HCl to each of the weighed sample is taken in conical flasks. The acid should be in slight excess, so that it can neutralize all the alkaline component of the tablet.
8. Add 2 drops of phenolphthalein and warm the flask till most of powder dissolves. Filter off the insoluble material.

1. 9. Titrate this solution against the standardised NaOH solution, till a permanent pinkish tinge is obtained. Repeat this experiment with different antacids.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS :
Standardisation of HCl solution :
Volume of Na₂CO₃ solution taken = 20.0 ml

S No. of obs.	Burette readings Initial       Final	Volume of acid used
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.	0 ml          15.0 ml 0 ml          15.1 ml 0 ml          15.0 ml 0 ml          15.0 ml 0 ml          15.0ml	15.0 ml 15.1 ml 15.0 ml 15.0 ml 15.0 ml

Concordant volume = 15.0 ml
Applying normality equation,
N₁V₁ = N₂V₂
N₁ * 15.0 =  * 20
Normality of HCl, N₁ = = 0.133 N
Standardisation of NaOH solution :
Volume of the given NaOH solution taken = 20.0 ml

S No. of obs.	Burette readings Initial       Final	Volume of acid used
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.	0 ml          26.5 ml 0 ml          26.8 ml 0 ml          26.6 ml 0 ml          26.6 ml 0 ml          26.6ml	26.5 ml 26.8 ml 26.6 ml 26.6 ml 26.6 ml

Concordant volume = 26.6 ml
Applying normality equation,
₁₁ = ₂₂
0.133 * 26.6 = ₂ * 20
Normality of NaOH, ₂ = = 0.176 N
Analysis of antacid tablet :
Weight of antacid tablet powder = 1.0 g
Volume of HCl solution added = 20.0 ml

Antacid	Vol. Of NaOH soln. Used to neutralise unused HCl	Vol. Of HCl soln. Used to neutralise 1.0 g of antacid matter
1. Gelusil 2. Digene 3. Aludrox 4. Logas 5. Ranitidine 6. Ocid 20	12.1 ml 16.0 ml 19.3 ml 24.3 ml 21.4 ml 22.7 ml	12.0 ml 16.2 ml 18.9 ml 24.4 ml 21.7 ml 21.9 ml

CONCLUSION :
The antacid which has maximum volume of HCl is used for neutralizing i.e. OCID 20 is more effective.
THIS PROJECT IS MADE WITH THE HELP OF FOLLOWING LINKS :

1. 1. WEBSITES :

• www.wikipedia.org
• www.google.com
• www.yahoo.com
• www.pharmaceutical-drugmanufacturers.com

2. BOOKS :

• Comprehensive Practical Manual for class XII
• Pradeep’s New Course Chemistry
• NCERT Class XII Part II

CBSE: Chemistry Project on Formation Of Biodiesel

Formation Of Biodiesel

Chemistry Investigatory Project

Acknowledgement

It gives me great pleasure to express my gratitude towards our chemistry teacher Mrs._______ for her guidance, support and encouragement throughout the duration of the project.  Without her motivation and help the successful completion of this project would not have been possible.
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Punit Gaur of class XII has completed the chemistry project entitled
‘FORMATION OF BIO DIESEL’
Himself and under my guidance. The progress of the project has been continuously reported and has been in my knowledge consistently.
SUBJECT INCHARGE:-

Mrs. _________


Contents

• Acknowledgement

• Certificate

• What is Biodiesel?

• Uses of Biodiesel

• Preparation of Biodiesel

• Reactions involved

• Biodiesel fuel features

• Disadvantages of Biodiesel

• Bibliography

What is Biodiesel?

Biodiesel refers to a non-petroleum-based diesel fuel consisting of short chain alkyl (methyl or ethyl) esters, made by transesterification of vegetable oil or animal fat (tallow), which can be used (alone, or blended with conventional petrol diesel) in unmodified diesel-engine vehicles. Biodiesel is distinguished from the straight-vegetable oil (SVO) (sometimes referred to as “waste vegetable oil” “WVO” “used vegetable oil” “UVO” “pure plant oil”, “PPO”) used(alone, or blended) as fuels in some converted diesel vehicles.”Biodiesel” is standardized as mono-alkyl ester and other kinds of diesel-grade fuels of biological origin are not included.
Uses of biodiesel

• Biodiesel fuel is a renewable energy source that can be made from soy beans grown for fuel, or from cooking oils recycled from restaurants. This means it is a renewable resource unlike petroleum-based diesel.

• There is an excess production of soybeans in the United States; therefore biodiesel is an economic way to utilize this surplus.

• Biodiesel is less polluting than petroleum diesel. Compared to petroleum diesel, biodiesel produces less soot (particulate matter), carbon monoxide, unburned hydrocarbons, and sulfur dioxide.

• The absence of sulfur in 100% biodiesel should extend the life of catalytic converters.

• Biodiesel fuel can also be used in combination with heating oil to heat residential and industrial buildings. This can reduce dependence on non-renewable and increasingly expensive heating oil.

• Biodiesel burns cleaner & is made of non-toxic chemicals so it does not give out poisonous fumes, unlike the ordinary fuel.

Instructions to Prepare Bio Diesel
Requirements:

• Vegetable oil
• Antifreeze (Methanol)
• Lye (NaOH)
• Blender
• Scales
• Plastic containers
• Funnels
• Plastic bottle with lid
• Duct tape
• Thermometer

Steps Involved:




Step 1:
Measure out 200 ml of antifreeze and put it in one plastic container.
Step 2:
Add in lye so that the antifreeze is absorbed.
Step 3:
Cover container and mix well by shaking it. It is mixed when it starts to feel warm and is foamy. The mixture has now become sodium methoxide.
Step 4:
Blend 1 liter of vegetable oil with the sodium methoxide in a blender for 20 minutes.
Step 5:
Pour mixture into a bottle and wait 8 hours until the byproduct, glycerin, separates form the biodiesel. The glycerin will be on the solid on the bottom.
Step 6:
Separate out the biodiesel by pouring into a glass bottle.
Step 7:
Prepare a wash bottle by poking a small hole in the corner of the bottle and covering it with duct tape.
Step 8:
Wash the biodiesel by pouring it into the wash bottle and adding in ½ a liter of water. Roll the bottle around to mix it and then remove the duct tape and drain the water.
Step 9:
Repeat the washing process until the biodiesel is clear. This may need to be done numerous times over the course of a week to complete the process. Store the biodiesel in a glass container until ready to use.
Reactions involved





Transesterification:



Animal & plant fats & oils are typically made of triglycerides which are esters of free fatty acids with the trihydric alcohol, glycerol. In the transesterification process, the alcohol is deprotonated with a base to make it a stronger nucleophile. Commonly, ethanol or methanol is used. As can be seen, the reaction has no other inputs than the triglyceride & the alcohol.
Normally, this reaction will precede either exceedingly slowly or not at all. Heat, as well as an acid or base are used to help the reaction more quickly.
Biodiesel is a much cleaner fuel than conventional fossil-fuel petroleum diesel

• Biodiesel burns up to 75% cleaner than petroleum diesel fuel.

• Biodiesel reduces unburned hydrocarbons (93% less), carbon monoxide (50% less) & particulate matter (30% less) in exhaust fumes, as well as cancer-causing PAH (80% less).

• Sulphur dioxide emissions are eliminated (biodiesel contains no Sulphur).

• Biodiesel is a plant-based & using it adds no extra CO₂ greenhouse gas to the atmosphere.

• The ozone-forming (smog) potential of biodiesel emissions is nearly 50% less than petrol-diesel emissions.

• Nitrogen oxide emissions may increase or decrease with biodiesel but can be reduced to well below petrol-diesel fuel levels.

• Biodiesel exhaust is not offensive & doesn’t cause eye irritation.

• Biodiesel can be mixed with petrol-diesel in any proportion, with no need for a mixing additive.

• With slight variations depending on the vehicle, performance & fuel economy with biodiesel is the same as with petrol-diesel.

Biodiesel’s fuel features
Power: One of the major advantages is the fact that it can be used in exiting engines & fuel injection equipment (no modification required) without negative impact to operating performance.
Fuel availability/economy: Virtually the same MPG rating as petrol-diesel & the only alternative fuel for heavyweight vehicles requiring no special dispensing & storage equipment.
Production/Refining: Can be done at home (wasted veggie oil) & farms (virgin oils from seeds), being the only alternative fuel that can boost of a zero total emissions production facility. By selling the simultaneously produced glycerol, the cost of BD is basically the same cost of the oil used to make it.
Storage: Readily blends & stays blended with petrol-diesel so it can be stored & dispensed wherever diesel is stored or sold.



Combustibility/Safety: Biodiesel has a very high flash point (300⁰F) making it one of the safest of all alternative fuels.
Lubricity: The only alternative fuel that can actually extend engine life because of its superior lubricating & cleaning properties. The present “low sulphur” diesel fuel is badly wearing the injection pumps of not protected diesel engine.
Usage: Biodiesel fuel can generally be used in existing oil heating systems and diesel engines without modification, and it can be distributed through existing diesel fuel pumps. This is an advantage over other alternative fuels, which can be expensive to use initially due to high cost of equipment modifications or new purchases. Biodiesel provides almost the same energy per gallon as petroleum diesel.
Environment Impact: The only renewable alternative diesel fuel that actually reduces major greenhouse gas components in the atmosphere. The use of biodiesel will also reduce the following emissions: carbon monoxide, ozone-forming-hydrocarbons, hazardous diesel particulate, acid rain-causing sulphur dioxide, lifecycle carbon dioxide.
Disadvantages of Biodiesel

• Biodiesel is currently about one and a half times more expensive than petroleum diesel fuel. Part of this cost is because the most common source of oil is the soybean, which only is only 20% oil. However, the costs of biodiesel can be reduced by making biodiesel from recycled cooking oils rather than from new soy beans, or by making it from plant matter with higher oil content.

• It takes energy to produce biodiesel fuel from soy crops, including the energy of sowing, fertilizing and harvesting.

• Biodiesel fuel can damage rubber hoses in some engines, particularly in cars built before 1994. You should check with the manufacturer before using biodiesel to see if you need to replace any hoses or rubber seals.

• Biodiesel cleans the dirt from the engine. This dirt then collects in the fuel filter, which can clog it. Clogging occurs most often when biodiesel is first used after a period of operation with petroleum diesel, so filters should be changed after the first several hours of biodiesel use.

Bibliography

All the information in the project has been gathered from internet.
Websites used:

• Google

• Free encyclopedia on biodiesel

• Biodiesel uses
• iCBSE

• Transesterification chemistry for preparing biodiesel

• Biodiesel features

• Making your own biodiesel

• Fact file of biodiesel

Chemistry Project on Formation Of Biodiesel

Formation Of Biodiesel

Chemistry Investigatory Project

Acknowledgement

It gives me great pleasure to express my gratitude towards our chemistry teacher Mrs._______ for her guidance, support and encouragement throughout the duration of the project.  Without her motivation and help the successful completion of this project would not have been possible.
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Punit Gaur of class XII has completed the chemistry project entitled
‘FORMATION OF BIO DIESEL’
Himself and under my guidance. The progress of the project has been continuously reported and has been in my knowledge consistently.
SUBJECT INCHARGE:-

Mrs. _________


Contents

• Acknowledgement

• Certificate

• What is Biodiesel?

• Uses of Biodiesel

• Preparation of Biodiesel

• Reactions involved

• Biodiesel fuel features

• Disadvantages of Biodiesel

• Bibliography

What is Biodiesel?

Biodiesel refers to a non-petroleum-based diesel fuel consisting of short chain alkyl (methyl or ethyl) esters, made by transesterification of vegetable oil or animal fat (tallow), which can be used (alone, or blended with conventional petrol diesel) in unmodified diesel-engine vehicles. Biodiesel is distinguished from the straight-vegetable oil (SVO) (sometimes referred to as “waste vegetable oil” “WVO” “used vegetable oil” “UVO” “pure plant oil”, “PPO”) used(alone, or blended) as fuels in some converted diesel vehicles.”Biodiesel” is standardized as mono-alkyl ester and other kinds of diesel-grade fuels of biological origin are not included.
Uses of biodiesel

• Biodiesel fuel is a renewable energy source that can be made from soy beans grown for fuel, or from cooking oils recycled from restaurants. This means it is a renewable resource unlike petroleum-based diesel.

• There is an excess production of soybeans in the United States; therefore biodiesel is an economic way to utilize this surplus.

• Biodiesel is less polluting than petroleum diesel. Compared to petroleum diesel, biodiesel produces less soot (particulate matter), carbon monoxide, unburned hydrocarbons, and sulfur dioxide.

• The absence of sulfur in 100% biodiesel should extend the life of catalytic converters.

• Biodiesel fuel can also be used in combination with heating oil to heat residential and industrial buildings. This can reduce dependence on non-renewable and increasingly expensive heating oil.

• Biodiesel burns cleaner & is made of non-toxic chemicals so it does not give out poisonous fumes, unlike the ordinary fuel.

Instructions to Prepare Bio Diesel
Requirements:

• Vegetable oil
• Antifreeze (Methanol)
• Lye (NaOH)
• Blender
• Scales
• Plastic containers
• Funnels
• Plastic bottle with lid
• Duct tape
• Thermometer

Steps Involved:




Step 1:
Measure out 200 ml of antifreeze and put it in one plastic container.
Step 2:
Add in lye so that the antifreeze is absorbed.
Step 3:
Cover container and mix well by shaking it. It is mixed when it starts to feel warm and is foamy. The mixture has now become sodium methoxide.
Step 4:
Blend 1 liter of vegetable oil with the sodium methoxide in a blender for 20 minutes.
Step 5:
Pour mixture into a bottle and wait 8 hours until the byproduct, glycerin, separates form the biodiesel. The glycerin will be on the solid on the bottom.
Step 6:
Separate out the biodiesel by pouring into a glass bottle.
Step 7:
Prepare a wash bottle by poking a small hole in the corner of the bottle and covering it with duct tape.
Step 8:
Wash the biodiesel by pouring it into the wash bottle and adding in ½ a liter of water. Roll the bottle around to mix it and then remove the duct tape and drain the water.
Step 9:
Repeat the washing process until the biodiesel is clear. This may need to be done numerous times over the course of a week to complete the process. Store the biodiesel in a glass container until ready to use.
Reactions involved





Transesterification:



Animal & plant fats & oils are typically made of triglycerides which are esters of free fatty acids with the trihydric alcohol, glycerol. In the transesterification process, the alcohol is deprotonated with a base to make it a stronger nucleophile. Commonly, ethanol or methanol is used. As can be seen, the reaction has no other inputs than the triglyceride & the alcohol.
Normally, this reaction will precede either exceedingly slowly or not at all. Heat, as well as an acid or base are used to help the reaction more quickly.
Biodiesel is a much cleaner fuel than conventional fossil-fuel petroleum diesel

• Biodiesel burns up to 75% cleaner than petroleum diesel fuel.

• Biodiesel reduces unburned hydrocarbons (93% less), carbon monoxide (50% less) & particulate matter (30% less) in exhaust fumes, as well as cancer-causing PAH (80% less).

• Sulphur dioxide emissions are eliminated (biodiesel contains no Sulphur).

• Biodiesel is a plant-based & using it adds no extra CO₂ greenhouse gas to the atmosphere.

• The ozone-forming (smog) potential of biodiesel emissions is nearly 50% less than petrol-diesel emissions.

• Nitrogen oxide emissions may increase or decrease with biodiesel but can be reduced to well below petrol-diesel fuel levels.

• Biodiesel exhaust is not offensive & doesn’t cause eye irritation.

• Biodiesel can be mixed with petrol-diesel in any proportion, with no need for a mixing additive.

• With slight variations depending on the vehicle, performance & fuel economy with biodiesel is the same as with petrol-diesel.

Biodiesel’s fuel features
Power: One of the major advantages is the fact that it can be used in exiting engines & fuel injection equipment (no modification required) without negative impact to operating performance.
Fuel availability/economy: Virtually the same MPG rating as petrol-diesel & the only alternative fuel for heavyweight vehicles requiring no special dispensing & storage equipment.
Production/Refining: Can be done at home (wasted veggie oil) & farms (virgin oils from seeds), being the only alternative fuel that can boost of a zero total emissions production facility. By selling the simultaneously produced glycerol, the cost of BD is basically the same cost of the oil used to make it.
Storage: Readily blends & stays blended with petrol-diesel so it can be stored & dispensed wherever diesel is stored or sold.



Combustibility/Safety: Biodiesel has a very high flash point (300⁰F) making it one of the safest of all alternative fuels.
Lubricity: The only alternative fuel that can actually extend engine life because of its superior lubricating & cleaning properties. The present “low sulphur” diesel fuel is badly wearing the injection pumps of not protected diesel engine.
Usage: Biodiesel fuel can generally be used in existing oil heating systems and diesel engines without modification, and it can be distributed through existing diesel fuel pumps. This is an advantage over other alternative fuels, which can be expensive to use initially due to high cost of equipment modifications or new purchases. Biodiesel provides almost the same energy per gallon as petroleum diesel.
Environment Impact: The only renewable alternative diesel fuel that actually reduces major greenhouse gas components in the atmosphere. The use of biodiesel will also reduce the following emissions: carbon monoxide, ozone-forming-hydrocarbons, hazardous diesel particulate, acid rain-causing sulphur dioxide, lifecycle carbon dioxide.
Disadvantages of Biodiesel

• Biodiesel is currently about one and a half times more expensive than petroleum diesel fuel. Part of this cost is because the most common source of oil is the soybean, which only is only 20% oil. However, the costs of biodiesel can be reduced by making biodiesel from recycled cooking oils rather than from new soy beans, or by making it from plant matter with higher oil content.

• It takes energy to produce biodiesel fuel from soy crops, including the energy of sowing, fertilizing and harvesting.

• Biodiesel fuel can damage rubber hoses in some engines, particularly in cars built before 1994. You should check with the manufacturer before using biodiesel to see if you need to replace any hoses or rubber seals.

• Biodiesel cleans the dirt from the engine. This dirt then collects in the fuel filter, which can clog it. Clogging occurs most often when biodiesel is first used after a period of operation with petroleum diesel, so filters should be changed after the first several hours of biodiesel use.

Bibliography

All the information in the project has been gathered from internet.
Websites used:

• Google

• Free encyclopedia on biodiesel

• Biodiesel uses
• iCBSE

• Transesterification chemistry for preparing biodiesel

• Biodiesel features

• Making your own biodiesel

• Fact file of biodiesel